Annexes to SEC(2011)1063 - Recent developments in European high educations systems accompanying the document: Supporting growth and jobs - an agenda for the modernisation of Europe's higher education systems - Main contents
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This page contains a limited version of this dossier in the EU Monitor.
| dossier | SEC(2011)1063 - Recent developments in European high educations systems accompanying the document: Supporting growth and jobs - an agenda ... |
|---|---|
| document | SEC(2011)1063  |
| date | September 20, 2011 |
In parallel, the development of external quality assurance systems highlighted above, has led to a greater centralisation of accountability in many cases, with institutions called upon to justify their performance to a greater extent than in the past. Both the increased devolution of responsibility and additional requirements in terms of performance reporting, place new demands on senior management within higher education institutions. This in turn calls for a professionalization of the management within institutions, including through training.
Box 6‑3: Policy and Practice - Supporting the efficient management of institutions, Czech Republic[134]
The Czech Ministry of Education has launched a project (running from 2009 to 2012) to respond to the need to strengthen the effectiveness of higher education management in the Czech Republic. The core goal of the project is to support and develop efficient management principles, especially in economic and administrative processes in higher education institutions and research organisations. The main output of the project will be a new set of guidelines for institutions, along with policy recommendations on how best to support institutional development, notably through training.
7. The internationalisation of higher education
The growing internationalisation of the higher education sector is characterised by two potentially contradictory trends. It is possible to observe in parallel an increase in cooperation - between higher education institutions, departments and individuals across the world - and intensification in international competition – as institutions and countries compete for mobile students and staff. In a related trend, the development of higher education systems in emerging economies, and notably the so-called BRIC[135] countries, has a double set of consequences for European higher education. Firstly, it increases the supply of domestic graduates for the national labour markets in these countries, allowing the economies in question to upgrade their skills base and thus increasing pressure on the Europe's economy to compete and European higher education to keep pace. Secondly, it brings new competitors into the global market place for higher education, which may at least mean fewer students from these countries choose to go abroad for study and may attract prospective international students away from Europe. The global higher education landscape is already a complex picture of competition in some areas and cooperation in others. This complexity seems set to increase in the years to come[136].
7.1. Internationalisation of the study body
The last decade has seen an increasing "internationalisation" of the study body in the EU. In 2008, roughly 1.5 million (7.8%) of the 19 million higher education students in the EU were enrolled in countries other than their country of citizenship[137]. This figure compares with only 788 000 in 2000 (5% of total students at that time), equating to an average annual increase of 8.1% over the eight-year period. This trend has been driven by increased international student mobility both within the EU and on a global scale. Figure 7‑1 shows students with foreign nationality as a share of the total student population in the EU, as well as the US and Japan, distinguishing between country or region of origin. The data includes students with foreign citizenship, rather than mobile students per se. This means the figures include residents of the countries of study who happen to have foreign citizenship.
Figure 7‑1: Proportion of foreign students enrolled in EU Member States, the US and Japan (2000/2008)
Source: Eurostat - UOE data collection (UNESCO, Eurostat, OECD)
Figure 7‑1 masks significant differences in the composition of the foreign student cohort in different Member States. Whereas in countries like Luxembourg, Austria and Belgium, a majority of foreign students in 2008 come from other EU countries[138], in Cyprus, France, Malta and Portugal, for example, more than 80% of all foreign students come from outside the EU. As shown in Table 7‑1, the number of non-EU higher education students enrolled in EU higher education institutions more than doubled in absolute terms between 2000 and 2008 (from less than 500,000 to almost 1 million) to account for 67% of all foreign students (compared to only 60% in 2000). The number of students from India and from China grew six-fold from 2000 to 2008, reaching 43 000 from India and 116 000 from China in 2008.
Table 7‑1: Foreign students in the EU
|| Foreign students in EU-27 (in 1000)
|| 2000 || 2007 || 2008
Total || 788.5 || 1430.2 || 1467.4
Europe || 384.4 || 599.6 || 608.1
- EU 27 || 316.4 || 479.2 || 487.8
-other Europe || 68.0 || 120.4 || 120.3
Africa || 134.2 || 246.0 || 241.7
Morocco || 38.2 || 46.3 || 44.2
Algeria || 14.9 || 21.8 || 20.3
Nigeria || 3.5 || 22.0 || 23.3
Asia || 183.0 || 405.5 || 413.5
China || 18.6 || 117.5 || 115.8
India || 6.6 || 39.3 || 43.1
Japan || 10.7 || 12.4 || 10.5
Americas || 63.1 || 121.6 || 124.3
USA || 22.7 || 32.2 || 30.8
Canada || 5.8 || 10.8 || 10.8
Brazil || 6.8 || 12.9 || 14.6
Oceania || 2.9 || 7.7 || 7.1
Unknown nat. || 20.9 || 49.8 || 64.3
Source: Eurostat (UOE collection)
In the context of international student mobility flows, the EU is a net receiver of students. Over 700 000 more students with non-EU citizenship are studying in the EU than EU citizens are studying outside the EU. However, the US is a net receiver of students from EU, with more than twice as many students from the EU going to the US as the reverse. In 2008, 138 000 US students came to study in Europe, although this figure includes short stays and summer courses. It is estimated that only around 30 000 US students annually come to study for at least a year.
Looking at the wider picture, Table 7‑2 shows the proportion ("market share") of all students studying outside their country of citizenship in selected countries across the world in 2000 and 2008, based on OECD data. This shows that 18 EU countries together host almost 40% of foreign students in the world and that this proportion remained broadly stable between 2000 and 2008. Around 28% of these students came from other EU Member States and over 40% from the European Higher Education Area. Moreover, within the EU, there is a marked concentration of foreign students in the UK, Germany and France, reflecting historical international links and language, as well as the attractiveness of the higher education systems in these countries.
Over the same eight-year timeframe, the US market share in foreign students fell from 24% to less than 19% (although absolute numbers have increased), partly reflecting increases in foreign student intake in Russia, EU countries such as Italy and the Netherlands and New Zealand. Despite this trend, the US continues to attract considerably more students from Asia than the EU: in 2008, for example, over 50% of the 185,000 Indian students studying abroad went to the US[139].
Table 7‑2: Market share for foreign students 2000 and 2008
|| Market share, 2000 (%) || Market share, 2008 (%)
Total share of 18 EU States included below (shaded rows) || 39.3 || 38.4
United States || 24.1 || 18.7
United Kingdom || 11.3 || 10.0
Germany || 9.5 || 7.3
France || 7.0 || 7.3
Australia || 5.4 || 6.9
Canada || 4.8 || 5.5
Russian Federation || 2.1 || 4.3
Japan || 3.4 || 3.8
Italy || 1.3 || 2.0
Spain || 1.3 || 1.9
New Zealand || 0.4 || 1.8
Austria || 1.5 || 1.6
Switzerland || 1.3 || 1.4
Belgium || 2.0 || 1.3
Netherlands || 0.7 || 1.2
Korea || 0.2 || 1.2
Sweden || 1.3 || 1.0
Czech Republic || 0.3 || 0.8
Greece || 0.4 || 0.8
Turkey || 0.9 || 0.6
Denmark || 0.7 || 0.6
Portugal || 0.5 || 0.6
Norway || 0.4 || 0.5
Hungary || 0.5 || 0.5
Poland || 0.3 || 0.4
Ireland || 0.4 || 0.4
Chile || 0.2 || 0.4
Finland || 0.3 || 0.3
Slovak Republic || 0.1 || 0.2
Estonia || 0.0 || 0.1
Mexico || 0.1 || 0.1
OTHER COUNTRIES || 17.4 || 16.6
Source: OECD Education at a Glance 2010
7.2. Expansion of higher education internationally
Investment in higher education as a driver of innovation has become a worldwide trend[140] and a growing number of emerging countries – in particular the BRIC states- have started investing massively in their universities and research organisations with a clear focus on science and technology[141]. As noted, these developments increase the pressure on European higher education to keep pace in terms of quality and attractiveness.
Figure 7‑2 shows the growth in students enrolled in higher education and in annual numbers of higher education graduates in China and Brazil between 2001 and 2009. This illustrates the expansion of the sectors in these two countries in the last decade, with student enrolment in China increasing by over 200% (almost doubling in Brazil) and the number of graduates quadrupling in China and more than doubling in Brazil.
Figure 7‑2: Number of higher education students and graduates in China and Brazil 2001 and 2009
Source: UNESCO
Over the last few years, awareness of mounting international competition in higher education and research has grown among European governments and universities. This has been one of the factors behind a series of current and announced policy responses, including initiatives to boost the competitiveness of national higher education systems. This is the case, for example, in Denmark, the UK, Germany (Initiative for Excellence[142]), France (through the development of regional poles of excellence), Spain (through the selection of thematic “campuses of international excellence”, as part of a comprehensive national plan called Strategy University 2015). These initiatives are to a varying extent also a response to the challenge posed by rankings: there is little doubt that in France, for example, the pooling of research capacities on a regional basis and the merger of universities (as in the case of the formerly three universities of Strasbourg) also aims at helping national clusters of institutions gain visibility in the leading rankings.
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[1] Reichert, S (2009)
[2] See van Vught, F.A.et al. (2010)
[3] http://classifications.carnegiefoundation.org/
[4] See http://www.u-map.eu/
[5] See http://www.u-multirank.eu/
[6] EU 27 + Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Turkey, Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Holy See, Russia, Serbia, Macedonia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine, Montenegro and Kazakhstan
[7] A student-centred credit system based on the student workload required to achieve specified learning outcomes
[8] A standardised template containing a description of the nature, level, context, content and status of studies completed by an individual student
[9] Which has subsequently been linked to the wider European Qualifications Framework (EQF), launched by the EU and covering all levels of education and training
[10] Notably through the European Quality Assurance Register for Higher Education (EQAR);
[11] Council of Europe and UNESCO Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region, April 1997
[12] The London Communiqué of 2007 defines the social dimension as the "societal aspiration that the student body entering, participating in and completing higher education at all levels should reflect the diversity of our populations"
[13] See European Commission (2010a)
[14] See, for example, Rauhvargers, Deane and Pauwels (2009), ESU (2009), EUA (2010), Eurydice (2010)
[15] EUA (2010)
[16] CHEPS 2010a
[17] Agreed by European Ministers of Higher Education at their meeting in Bergen 2005
[18] Adopted for all strands of education and training by the EU Council and Parliament
[19] See, for example, ESU (2009)
[20] CHEPS 2010a
[21] Eurydice (2010)
[22] Also refer to Eurydice (2011)
[23] Eurydice (2010)
[24] Employment rates for tertiary graduates are over 15 percentage points higher than rates among upper secondary graduates in LT, PL, LV, RO, SI, BU and HU.
[25] The most recent job vacancy data shows an increase in recruitment in the finance sector – see, for example, European Commission (2011d)
[26] See http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=955&langId=en
[27] These costs are examined in more detail in Section 7 on higher education funding.
[28] See, for example CEGES (2007), OECD (2010a)
[29] Post secondary, non-tertiary education.
[30] In 2008, almost 1 million of the 19 million students in the EU (5.2%) were nationals of non-EU countries.
[31] With the exception of Lithuania, which historically had very high levels of tertiary attainment.
[32] Tertiary educational attainment measured with reference to ISCED 5 and 6
[33] Tertiary educational attainment measured with reference to ISCED 5 and 6
[34] Note that AT and DE define attainment by referring, respectively, to ISCED level 4a (AT) and ISCED level 4 (DE), which they consider equivalent to tertiary degrees (see below)
[35] BE, CY, DE, ES, FI, FR, IE, PL, SE
[36] DK, LU, LT, EE, SI, PT, SK
[37] AT, BG, CZ, EL, HU, IT, LV, MT, RO
[38] See European Commission (2011c)
[39] International Standard Classification of Education
[40] Austria has set a higher education attainment target of 38% by 2020, including ISCED 4a, while Germany has established a target of 42% including ISCED 4a and 4b. See European Commission (2011c)
[41] ISCED 4a and 4b in Germany and ISCED 4a in Austria
[42] BE, CZ, FR, CY, LU, MT and PT
[43] Note that ISCED 4 data for MT, BG, ES, NL, UK, FR, CY, FI, LU and DK lack reliability due to the small sample size in these countries
[44] London Communiqué of 2007
[45] Eurostudent (2011)
[46] The average higher education attainment rate in the EU-27 for those aged 30-34 is 37.2% for women and 30% for men.
[47] The exceptions (where male graduates outnumber female graduates in the population 25-64) are LU, DE, AT, NL and CZ.
[48] Respectively 68% and 58% female students in 2009
[49] Respectively 62% and 75% male students in 2009
[50] Eurydice (2011)
[51] Eurostudent (2011)
[52] Does not cover BE, HU, BU, GR and Scotland (Observers) or Cyprus and Northern Ireland (non Members)
[53] In particular because educational attainment levels are closely correlated to occupational status and, to a lesser extent, income and educational attainment levels are objective and easily comparable across countries.
[54] For example, OECD (2010a) Eurydice (2010)
[55] This is also a key objective of the Copenhagen Process in the field of Vocational Educational and Training, which aims to create flexible learning pathways, which allow permeability between the different parts of the education and training system. See Copenhagen Process 2010.
[56] In particular FR, BE, MT, CY, UK and NL, where over 20% of students in 2009 were 19 or younger.
[57] See also Eurydice (2011), Section 1.3
[58] See OECD 2010a
[59] Eurostudent (2011), pp.26-28
[60] EUA (2010)
[61] Eurostat calculations
[62] See Oxford Research (2010)
[63] See European Commission (2010b)
[64] CEDEFOP (2010a)
[65] European Commission (2006)
[66] 1. Communication in the mother tongue; 2. Communication in foreign languages; 3. Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology; 4. Digital competence; 5. Learning to learn; 6. Social and civic competences; 7. Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; 8. Cultural awareness and expression.
[67] Eurobarometer (2010a)
[68] European Commission (2010b)
[69] The OECD's Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is undertaking a new wide-ranging survey of adult skills in order to assess the skills competencies needed for individual success. The outcomes are intended to inform education practitioners and policy makers on appropriate ways to develop these skills and competencies. http://www.oecd.org/document/35/0,3746,en_2649_201185_40277475_1_1_1_1,00.html
[70] ENQA (2005). Developed by ENQA in cooperation with EUA, EURASHE and ESIB
[71] See Section 4.3
[72] See 2005 Bergen Communiqué
[73] http://www.ehea.info/article-details.aspx?ArticleId=69
[74] See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc44_en.htm
[75] See for example, EUA (2010), GHK (2011)
[76] Assessing Higher Education Learning Outcomes (AHELO) www.oecd.org/edu/ahelo
[77] EUA (2010)
[78] See: http://www.hrk.de/de/projekte_und_initiativen/5913.php
[79] European Commission (2010b)
[80] University-Business Forum, see http://ec.europa.eu/education/higher-education/doc1261_en.htm
[81] Call for proposals: http://ec.europa.eu/education/calls/doc2905_en.htm
[82] Conclusions of the Council and of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States on developing the role of education in a fully-functioning knowledge triangle, 26 November 2009
[83] See: http://eit.europa.eu/nc/activities/education/overview.html?print=1
[84] 60% of respondents to the 2010 EUA Trends survey rated the development of internal quality processes had been one of the most important changes affecting their organisations in the last 10 years – EUA (2010)
[85] EUA (2010)
[86] See European Commission (2009)
[87] See: http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/14/30/87/358bd536.pdf
[88] European Commission (2010b)
[89] EUA (2010)
[90] See: http://www.kslll.net/PoliciesAndAchievements/ExampleDetails.cfm?id=139&OtherSourceId=&compendiumid=2
[91] Digital Agenda for Europe, European Commission (2010x)
[92] Economist Intelligent Unit (2008)
[93] OECD (2005)
[94] Evidence to date indicates that internationalisation is not a primary motivation for deploying ICT in programmes - see, for example Economist Intelligent Unit (2008)
[95] OECD (2005)
[96] Economist Intelligent Unit (2008)
[97] See European Commission (2010d), OECD (2005)
[98] See Leuven / Louvain-la-Neuve Communiqué http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/Declarations/Leuven_Louvain-la-Neuve_Communiqu%C3%A9_April_2009.pdf
[99] Parey, M and F. Waldinger (2011)
[100] For example, French and German students on medical courses in, respectively, Belgium and Austria.
[101] The number of international students studying in Europe increased by 60% between 1999 and 2007, CHEPS (2010a), p. 73.
[102] Eurydice Higher Education in Europe 2009, p. 43.
[103] Eurydice (2010)
[104] http://www.uvm.dk
[105] “Promoting the Learning Mobility of Young People”, Green Paper, COM(2009) 329 final.
[106] http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/11/st10/st10545.en11.pdf
[107] The ability to have access to national student support funding (grants and/or loans) during study periods abroad.
[108] Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region
[109] Rauhvargers, Deane and Pauwels (2009)
[110] See http://www.esn.org/content/prime-problems-recognition-making-erasmus
[111] See: http://www.lanekassen.no/Toppmeny/Languages/English/Norwegian-students-abroad/
[112] Defined as "an entrepreneurial process of discovery that can reveal what a country or region does best in terms of science and technology" – see Foray et al (2009)
[113] See, for example, the forthcoming European Commission publication Connecting Universities to Regional Growth: A guide to help improve the contribution of universities to regional development, with a view to strengthening economic, social and territorial cohesion, in a sustainable way.
[114] http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu/activities/research-and-innovation/s3_a.cfm
[115] 2009: Comparable expenditure data only becomes available around three years after the reference year.
[116] Along with SK, combined direct public and private spending was below the EU average in IT, HU, MT, SI, CZ, EE, ES, UK and DE
[117] Data on private expenditure for HU are from 2006, for private and public expenditure for RO are from 2007
[118] See CHEPS (2010c)
[119] See European Commission (2010c)
[120] This debate reaches well beyond the EU. See for example: OECD Education Ministerial Meeting, Invest in Human and Social Capital: new post-crisis challenges, Paris 4-5 November 2010 (Chair’s Summary).
[121] European Commission (2011b)
[122] EUA (2011a)
[123] In the UK, the decline in direct public spending is set to be compensated by increased private contributions in the form of tuition fees, which will in most cases at least double from the academic year 2011-2012.
[124] OECD (2011a)
[125] Eurydice 2011
[126] See CHEPS (2010c)
[127] Rollwagen, I (2011)
[128] CHEPS (2010c) found universities in 14 countries had a high level of financial autonomy in 2008 (compared to 11 countries in 1995).
[129] See: http://www.smm.lt/en/index.htm
[130] Eurydice (2008), CHEPS (2010b)
[131] European Commission (2006a), p.5
[132] CHEPS (2010b)
[133] EU-27, NO, LI, IS, CH, TR, HR.
[134] http://www.msmt.cz/european-union/ipn-in-the-field-of-tertiary-education-research-and-development/efficient-institutions?lang=2
[135] Brazil, Russia, India and China
[136] On this, see OECD (2009)
[137] This includes both EU students studying in another EU country and non-EU students studying within the EU
[138] Around a third of foreign students in Austria come from Germany. Over half the foreign students in Luxembourg come from France, Germany and Portugal.
[139] In 2008, almost 95,000 Indian citizens were studying in higher education in the US, compared to 34,600 in the 19 EU Member States that are members of the OECD.
[140] Weber, L. and J. Duderstadt (2010)
[141] ACA Seminar on Brazil, Russia, India, China: Key points on the European Higher Education Compass? Brussels, 18 March 2011.
[142] http://www.bmbf.de/en/1321.php